Gender and Darfur Conflict : A Critical Overview
Oleh: Zulkhair Burhan
Introduction
The recent development of the world not only appearing the possibility to make some relationships and cooperations between various actors if international relations but also could triggering the potential conflicts. The conflicts occurred due to various factors such as economical gap, racial issues, religion and ideology. Then, this phenomenon bring out many approaches that used to analyze and find out the alternative solutions to dissolve the conflict and bring the sustainable peace.
The various of perspectives that used for analyzing conflict and bring peaceful condition unfortunately always deny the gender aspect. Denying the gender aspect surely can impact to how the treat that made to overcome the whole frame of conflict, not only during the conflict or peace negotiations process occurred but also in the pre-conflict time and post-conflict time. As Cynthia Cockburn said that differentiating, ignoring and problematizing gender are three approaches that produce different readings of conflict situation.[1]
The most important thing that should be addressed as Moser stated that beside creating the analytical justification related to the reasons of using gender perspective but also how we create the operational frame work that can make sure that in whole processes from violence reduction initiatives-peace negotiations, post-conflict reconstruction and solutions to build sustainable long-term peace and development- integrate a gender perspective.[2]
Using Darfur conflict as case study, In this paper I will divide in four sections. First, I will give an explanation about the background of the conflict in Darfurand the impacts of it. Second, I will give an analysis of the conflict using gender based perspective and propose an operational framework based on gender perspective. And the last I will give some critical overview and conclutions based analysis before.
Darfur Conflict
Darfur (Land of the Fur) is located in the western region of The Republic of Sudan (Jumhuriyat as-Sudan). It divided into three administrative states, North, West and South. Each state represent the ethnics in Darfur’s zone. Northern Darfur State is placed by a small minority of Meidab Arabs ethnic of camel nomads, but major ethnics are non-Arab Zaghawa. Western Darfur State is inhabited by non-Arab sedentary farmers, the Fur, Massalit, Daju, and Berti. Southern Darfur State is inhabited by cattle and camel nomads, the Baqqara, who claim their origins from Arab (Juhayna) and also speak Arabic, but ethnically they are the result of relationship with their surrounding African neighbors that arrived in southern Darfur in the eighteenth century. Most of the people of Darfur are muslims and a few still practice the traditional African religion.[3]
The short describe of Darfur above actually can drive us to the root of the conflict. By analyzing the ecological, demographic and Darfur’s history, we at least can divide the roots of conflict in several things. First, ethnics or tribal distinction. The ethnic based conflict actually is not something new in Darfur. Since 1960s until 2003 recorded about thirteen conflicts based on ethnics were occurred.[4] In recent conflict, when Justice and Equality Movement and Sudan Liberation Army attacking major towns in northern Darfur, these rebels group accusing the Sudanese government of oppressing or committing genocide against black Africans in favor of Arabs. Second, seizuring natural resources. The conflict between the different ethnic or tribal is always because of the effort to control the natural resources in particular water resources. In water case not all the part of Darfur have the good resources of water and exacerbated by the draught for long time. For example, the western province of Darfur can support their agriculture by using the rainfall and drainage from Jabal Marra. In contrary, in the semidesert of the north that is really dependent for water in intermittent wadis and wells, that always become dry in the winter. And in the south, the summer rains produce grass and become a good sources of water from wells and excavated reservoirs for the lokal ethnic and their cattle.[5] The conflict in struggling to control the natural resources not just triggered by local ethnics but also from the outsiders. Many analysis stated that the Darfur conflict which begun in 2003 based on the effort of certain countries to control oil resources there.[6]
Gender-Based Analysis and Framework
To build the comprehensive analysis and framework of conflict based on gender perspective by starting to recognize that violence and conflict both are gender activities. As stated by Caroline O.N. Moser:
“The conceptual rationale for such a gender framework starts by recognizing that violence and conflict are both gendered activities. Because of ideologically ascribed male and female gender roles, relations and identities, stereotypically, this means that:
- Men and women as social actors each experience violence and conflict differently, both as victims and as perpetrators; and
- Men and women have differential access to resources (including power and decision making) during conflict and conditions of violence.”[7]
Refers to the explanation above, Moser then continue that this conceptual lead us to understand that peace is gendered. So that, we can say that a gender perspective is appropriate in conflict and violence reduction and peace building because of these following factors:
1. Women and men as social actors often have different roles, relations and identities in peace building and violence reduction initiatives; and
2. Women and men may have different needs and interests that an inclusive operational framework must include, solving not only practical problems, but also underlying strategic interests relating to gender power relations. This incorporates the development of policy approaches that recognize the nature of exclusion and empowerment in terms of gender ideologies.[8]
Woman as a victim
In every armed conflict women are mostly become the victims not only during during the conflict but also in the pre and post conflict rather than men. In case of Darfur conflict, many report released stated that during the conflict women become the victims of the violence. In this part we will see how conflict impact to women and men in many aspects such as; health, education, security, displacement.
Health
In northern Darfur, over 200,000 mothers and young children suffer from malnutrition and lack of medical aid. Much of Darfur suffers from malnutrition due to inadequate food supply and nutritional content. Health issues stemming from this situation are causing serious problems for expectant mothers.[9]
The reproductive health also become a major problems for women, even the humanitarian assistance provide a better clinic but many problems faced by the women in Darfur.
1. There is not much time to reach the clinic.
2. Financial problem: Women sometimes have no money to pay for horse/donkey cart to reach the clinic.
3. Seasonal variations: During rainy season women’s attendance at the clinic is decreased. During July and August number again declines, as most of the women are engaged in farming. However, September shows normal attendance but again the attendance plummets down in October as it is the harvesting time.
4. The farms land is far away from clinic so the journey is expensive and insecure.
5. TBAs don’t encourage referral to clinic, as they get paid in the form of gifts and goods in kind for every delivery conducted by them at home.[10]
Education
In South Darfur it is estimated there are nearly 257,000 conflict-affected children of school age, two thirds of them IDPs. South Darfur has the largest population of school-age children not enrolled in school. Most drop-outs occur after only a few years of schooling, before children have had a chance to develop basic literacy educational supplies, uniforms, in service training for volunteer teachers and construction and rehabilitation of classrooms and school water and sanitation facilities. Within the IDP camps, poor infrastructure, overcrowding and lack of both materials and trained teachers all significantly affect the provision of quality education for IDP children and youth. For those who do not have immediate access to schools within camps, long distances to the nearest available schools – sometimes an hour’s walk in each direction additionally hamper access to educational services. This marginalises girls in particular, many of whom are not permitted to walk long distances for fear of attack. In some areas, corporal punishment is still in use, deterring children further.[11]
Security
One of the main problem related to security aspect is violence against women. Amnesty International in its report stated that the abuses against women are integral part of whole conflict period. Women and girls are mostly become the target of sexual violence. In many cases the Janjawid have raped women in public, in the open air, in front of their husbands, relatives or the wider community. Rape is first and foremost a violation of the human rights of women and girls; in some cases in Darfur, it is also clearly used to humiliate the woman, her family and her community. The janjawid also rape pregnant women and often women or girls being killed after resisted rape. In other case, tortures against women is used to force them telling where their husbands were hiding.[12]
Rapes have been committed in the context of attacks on villages, and according to some testimonies collected by Amnesty International, during smaller raids, mainly at night, before attacks on villages took place. Women in Darfur are primary targets for violence and are more vulnerable in the context of armed conflict because, in Darfur, it is women who are responsible for the children and other family dependants. Women are the main care givers, which renders them more vulnerable during attacks and flight. Women are more accessible to aggressors during attacks, because they usually stay closer to the village, compared to men who tend to herd cattle, further away from the village.[13]
Displacement
The civil war between the government in Khartoum and the SPLA resulted in about four
million Southern Sudanese being internally displaced and at least 500,000 refugees. However displacement reports in 2009, indicating over 390,000 internally displaced, are more than twice those of 2008. The first four months of 2010, another 60,000 people have been displaced, bringing the total number of newly displaced people since January 2009 to 450,000. The IDPs face many problems in the camps, such as; the difficult access to clean water, health services and food security. In Darfur, internally displaced women and men face differerent risks and challenges: men prefer to find out the economic opportunities in town, where they are always become the victim of theft and robbery. And women who always do their activities in farming and other livelihood activities outside towns, get the threat of rape and other gender based violence.[14]
Besides women as victim of this conflict, they also play a significant roles in order to bring out the sustainable peace in the region.
Women as Peace Agent
The conflict had changed division of labor between women and men. As a new heads of households, in which they are responsible good life of their families and communities, the women are also at the front side of peace building efforts such as securing IDP camps, and pressing for a ceasefire. The involve of women in every phase is needed in order to give a significant perspectives and needs of the women itself. And if the agreement or negotiations about peace processes neglecting women’s role so that the agreement mostly do not answer the women’s problem and that it was rejected.
In Darfur, the involve of women is really significant in order to discuss and do some processes of peace program that coordinated with many NGOs, such as; Convene Meetings with Women at the Community Level: Mid-2007, Hold Regional Consultations with Women Leaders: Late 2007, Convene Women Representatives for Summit: Late 2007, Ensure the Participation of Women Representatives in Negotiations, Engage Darfurians in Outreach and Dialogue, Involve Representatives in Implementing the Peace Agreement: Ongoing.[15]
Critical Overview and Conclution
The short explanation about Darfur conflict above at least give us the picture that conflict should be seen as the relations between men and women as the main agent of the conflict (victims and perpetrators) to the social structure that constructed in whole phase of the conflict. Aware or not we can see that conlict construct the distinction “position” between men and women, so that the perspective or approaches should put the significant attention in this matter.
The effort to achieve sustainable peace in Darfur have to be analyzed and put a good attention to some key factors in peace processes such as; gender or sexual division of labor, distribution of resources (access and control; condition and position), practical gender needs and strategi gender needs, security and protection needs, how woman are currently organized or participating in social, economic, political and religious structures and the capacities of women and men to participate in decision making processes and reconstruction. And the next effort is mainstreaming gender, means that gender perspectives is used in many aspects of life in substantial meaning.
And then, I thing we as the inhabitant of this world have to begin to think about the alternative of economic system that put women and men in fair position.
References:
Moser, Caroline O.N. and Fiona Clark. 2001. Gender, Armed Conflict And Political Violence, London:Zed Books & Kali for Women.
Totten, Samuel and Eric Markusen. 2006. Genocide in Darfur: Investigating the Atrocities in the Sudan, New York, London: Routledge;Taylor and Francis Group
http://www.sudanembassy.org/sudannewsletter/sudanews.pdf.
http://www.internationalmedicalcorps.org/Page.aspx?pid=1086
http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/info/AFR54/076/2004
http://www.internal-displacement.org/countries/sudan
www.fmreview.org/FMRpdfs/FMR26/FMR2634.pdf
www.globalgiving.org/projects/women-and-childrens-health-in-darfur
[1] Cynthia Cockburn, “The Gender Dynamics of Armed Conflict and Political Violence”, in Victims, Perpetrators Or Actors?:Gender, Armed Conflict And Political Violence, edited by Caroline O.N. Moser and Fiona Clark (London:Zed Books & Kali for Women, 2001) p. 13
[2] Caroline O.N. Moser, “ Gender Continuum of Violence and Conflict”, in Victims, Perpetrators Or Actors?:Gender, Armed Conflict And Political Violence, edited by Caroline O.N. Moser and Fiona Clark London:Zed Books & Kali for Women, 2001) p. 30
[3] Robert O. Collins, “Disaster in Darfur: Historical Overview”, in Genocide in Darfur: Investigating the Atrocities in the Sudan” edited by Samuel Totten and Eric Markusen (New York, London: Routledge;Taylor and Francis Group, 2006) p. 3
[4] Khidir Haroun Ahmed . “Darfur Conflict:Its History, Nature And Development” (http://www.sudanembassy.org/sudannewsletter/sudanews.pdf. ) December, 15, 2010
[5] Op.Cit., Collins, p. 4
[6] F William Engdahl. “Darfur? It’s the Oil, Stupid…China and USA in New Cold War over Africa’s Oil Riches” (http://oilgeopolitics.net/Geopolitics___Eurasia/Oil_in_Africa/oil_in_africa.html) December, 15, 2010
[7] Op.Cit., Moser, p. 30
[8] Ibid., p. 30-31
[11] Right to education in South Darfur, (www.fmreview.org/FMRpdfs/FMR26/FMR2634.pdf) p. 60
[12] Sudan, Darfur Rape as a Weapon of War Sexual Violence and its Consequences, (http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/info/AFR54/076/2004), p. 11
[13] Ibid, p. 12-13
[14] SUDAN:Rising Inter-Tribal Violence In The South And Renewed Clashes In Darfur Cause New Waves Of Displacement (http://www.internal-displacement.org/countries/sudan), p. 5-7
[15] Creating An Inclusive Peace Process In Darfur A Model For Increasing Women’s Participation (www.huntalternatives.org/.../583_creating_an_inclusive_peace_process_in_darfur_6_18_07.pdf)
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